Legal Strikes and Illegal Strikes Under Labor Law

Q1. Legal strikes and illegal strikes are dramatically different in terms of how they are viewed in Labour Law. Discuss. (5 marks) Section 1 (1) of the Labour Relations Act, 1995 defines â€Å"a strike as a cessation of work, a refusal to work or to continue to work by employees in combination or in concert or in accordance with a common understanding, or a slow-down or other concerted activity on the part of employees designed to restrict or limit output†.According to the â€Å"Labour Relations Act, 1995† the strikes are legal only if some preconditions are met such as the collective agreement must have expired, a strike vote must have been held and 50% of the members are in favour of the strike, and a conciliation officer must have been appointed. All the employees covered under Labour Relations Act, 1995 are not lawfully permitted to strike e. g. ospitals, and nursing homes and Toronto Transit Commission do not have the right to strike. Some departments like fire fig hters and police are not subject to the above-discussed law and have their own legislations. If a union is not adhering the law the strike can be charged as illegal and the participants are subject to discipline. The employer can request the board for cease immediately and if the orders are disobeyed, court injunction can occur.The breech of court orders can result in fines and jail sentences and employers can also sue the individuals or unions for the damages. The union leaders can be charged and held responsible for the consequences of the strike. Considering the differences of legal and illegal strike, as defined above by law, it can be argued that legal strikes and illegal strikes are dramatically different in terms of how they are viewed in Labour Law. Question 2: How should Bob begin to address this situation? (5 marks)Bob Graham a newly appointed Labour Relation Manager has been directed by the management to get rid of the chief union steward Peter who is known for absenteeis m (missed over 100 shifts), coming late to work (53 times), do not advise his supervisor about being absent (25 occasions), low performance at work, breath smells of alcohol on a regular basis (serious infraction), unpredictable mood swings and disruptive behavior to entire workforce. The complaints have been made by the employees to the management about Peter’s bsenteeism, attitude and performance but all in vain. Employees who habitually absent from work or come late are subject to discipline. Absenteeism in the plant averages six shifts a year whereas, Peter has missed one hundred shifts which is way more than the plant average therefore should be subject to discipline with a series of warnings and ultimately should be discharged. Although there are several concrete evidences and complaints about Peter’s misconduct at the workplace, his disciplinary record is clear.The reason for this, described in the case study, is very obvious, management views Peter as someone t o fear, as the company occurred a hefty financial loss as a result of a successful illegal strike lead by him. Bob is in a very critical position as he is new to the organization and that there is no record of Peter’s misconduct at the workplace. He has not been issued any verbal or written warnings. Therefore he should be very careful in whatever actions he take against Peter.He should start an official, fair and objective investigation against Peter and should involve other senior management members too. The major issue faced by Bob is that apart from the clear evidences of Peter’s misconduct in the workplace there are no disciplinary reports against him. Bob should first develop a relationship of trust with the employees in the organization as a credible HR manager. Bod in normal situation would consult union steward and Peter’s immediate supervisor to discuss the issue. As Peter is the union steward, it can be hard for him to involve union effectively.Theref ore he should keep the evidences like his attendance, his behavior with others and should conduct interviews with the employees who have been complaining about his behavior and have substantial amount of documentary evidences by taking as many witnesses as possible. Because Peter is the chief steward of the union and has been occurring substantial financial losses to the company, it is worth hiring a third party to do the investigation for Bob. After he is collected concrete evidence against him, he should conduct an interview with Peter in the presence of another senior management member and address the issues.Peter should be given verbal warning followed by the written warnings. He can repeat the written warnings if required so that the disciplinary action can be escalated to the next level. If Peter finally does not correct his behavior, which most likely seems to be the case, he should be suspended without pay fro 1 to 5 days. After that if he still does not change his behavior, he is subject to be terminated with cause. Question 3: If Peter is discharged, what arguments would the company lawyer use at arbitration? (10 marks)If the management decides to discharge Peter, he using his power will take the disciplinary action to attribution where the union will try to show that management did not have cause to the disciplinary action against Peter. Company lawyer in this case should have real evidences against peter so that management can attempt to prove how the action taken was crucial for business. Peter committed some serious offences like drinking at the workplace and the clear disciplinary record the he has â€Å"irreparably damaged the employment relationship with the employer† (Module 5).The contract between an employee and employer, which says that employee will carry out tasks according to the directions given and would adhere the established standards personally and professionally in return of the payment he gets from employer. The lawyer sho uld talk about management rights in collective agreement, which outlines that the management has the right to fire the employees who are subject to discipline and poor performance to run the business smoothly. The lawyer should provide the substantial documentations Bob prepared while investigation and warning stage.The lawyer should also emphasize if discipline is a required function on the management’s mandate to preserve stability in the workplace. Talking within the context of discipline the argument should be made by the lawyer about how Peter’s absenteeism significantly and progressively exceeded the plant average and that the behavior was not altered by him after a series of communication with him in making an effort to close the gap between his performance and the established standards of the organizations.While highlighting the causes of discharge such as, 100 missed shifts, 53 late arrivals and 25 occasions of not advising the supervisor of his absence, the a rgument should also be made about as to how Peter was able to influence management using his power not to make a report on his disciplinary record. Considering his involvement in the serious infractions such as drinking at the workplace and harassing the co-workers psychologically it can be argued that his actions did not meet the mandatory standards established by the organization. No formal apology by Peter to the management can also be a significant argument for the company lawyer.As defined in module 5 â€Å"Discipline can include termination with cause for serious infractions or infractions which have followed lengthy disciplinary records†, Peter is subject to both which provides a logical cause to the action taken against him. Q 4. What arguments would the union lawyer make in response? (10 marks) The work record, seniority, age, re-employability, company rules, duty to accommodate, the economic climate and his reputation as a union leader will be the key arguments by t he union lawyer in response to the company lawyer.Peter’s seniority and clean disciplinary record suggests that the union lawyer has a strong argument to make. Peter’s length of service with the company would provide the union lawyer an edge over the company lawyer as in the union-represented workplaces senior employees have significant rights and seniority derives almost all of the decisions to reduce bias. Peter’s seniority is complemented with the clean disciplinary record over the period of his job that puts the union lawyer in a strong position. Peter’s age and economic conditions in the industry he works in provide a strong argument.According to the case study â€Å"Peter Frost is a 52 year old maintenance mechanic with 25 years service in a construction materials plant in western Mississauga†. According to the statistic provided on bureau of labour website the maintenance mechanics’ jobs are subject to change frequently and adaption t o new sophisticated machinery is crucial. The increased automation and new computer controlled machines in the plants can result in less demand for old workers who got their training years back and were unable to update their skills.Peter perfectly fits in this scenario, as he is working in the industry for a long time and doesn’t seem like he as been going for new training considering his attitude to work. Therefore his re-employability is an issue considering the external environment of the industry. The fact that Peter is a known union leader for conducting successful illegal strikes can also affect his re-employability. Company rules also put the union lawyer in a favorable position.The clean disciplinary record of Peter advocates that the organization does not have the history of enforcement of disciplinary actions, the past practices and the publication of rules is poor. If the disciplinary rules and procedures were in place and were practiced the management would have been warned Peter of infractions as they occurred, and also the â€Å"Discipline in the labour relations field is foremost rehabilitative rather than punitive†(Module 4). If Peter admits he is addict to alcohol the company has the duty to accommodate under the Ontario Human Rights Code.It can be logically argued on this base that peter’s addiction is a disease/ disability and he is covered under the terms of the Duty to Accommodate provisions of the Code (Module 5). Question 5: What criteria would an arbitrator use to decide the case and what decision would likely be made? (20 marks) In this discharge case the arbitrator has the ultimate right to support the discharge of Peter, dismiss his discharge or adjust the discipline to something less than a discharge for example an extended suspension without pay.In situations like this, it is usually up to the company and union lawyers as to how they present and support the information they provide to the arbitrator. However t he decisions made by arbitrator in the past and set examples are also the majour contributors in the decisions made by an arbitrator (Module 5). The literature about the previous cases reveals that an arbitrator typically considers the severity of infraction, the work record, seniority, age, re-employability of the employee and the company rules, duty to accommodate, the economic climate before making any decisions.In this case both the union lawyer and the company lawyer have provided some logical arguments to defend them, which makes it very difficult to predict what decision the arbitrator would most likely to make. The comparison of both parties’ arguments and the past decisions of the arbitrators would help to anticipate the decision the arbitrator would make about Peter’s discharge case. The company lawyer made a solid argument about the seriousness of the offences made by Peter such as drinking at the workplace.Where as the union lawyer made a logical argument t o defend peter, he highlighted that if Peter admits that he is alcoholic or drug addict which is considered to be a disease and a disease is a disability the employer considering the Duty to Accommodate Provisions of the Code is bound to accommodate Peter through appropriate means rather than discharge. The company lawyer made an argument about peters progressive absenteeism and poor performance over the period of 4 years.Talking within the context of discipline the argument was made by the lawyer about how Peter’s absenteeism significantly and progressively exceeded the plant average and the gap between his performance and the established standards of the organizations. Peter’s seniority is complemented with the clean disciplinary record over the period of his job was highlighted by the union lawyer in response. The absence of any disciplinary charges on Peter’s record provided the union lawyer an edge over the company lawyer.The lawyer argued about management rights in collective agreement, which says that management has the right to fire the employees who are subject to discipline and poor performance to run the business smoothly. The union lawyer raised an issue of company rules he argued that the clean disciplinary record of Peter advocates that the organization does not have the history of enforcement of disciplinary actions, the past practices and the publication of rules is poor.The lack of communication history between Peter and the management in the previous years did put the company lawyer in an awkward position, as the discipline in the labour relations field is primarily rehabilitative and not punitive. The company lawyer talked about how Peter’s behavior was interfering with other employees but the evidences did not back that as his record was clear and there was a not substantial document available from previous years.The union lawyer in this case seems to have an upper hand over the company lawyer as he argued about Peter’s seniority, age, re-employability the economic condition, the external environment of the industry which are the majour issued the arbitrator would consider while making the decision. The union lawyer had thoroughly researched the criteria the arbitrators use to make decision and has made argument about how the charges against peter are not well supported by the evidences. Arbitrators made the decisions based on the evidences provided by the both parties.The examples of the documentation could be the documentations, videos and witnesses. The lack of these evidences from the company lawyer suggests that Peter is most like to get away with the situation and the decision might be made in his favour than the company. Q 6. How does the situation change if Peter admits he is an alcoholic? (10 marks) If peter admits he is an alcoholic he would have an upper hand over the company. According to the Ontario Human Rights Code the employer has the duty to accommodate the employees who have disabilities.The union lawyer can make a logical argument to defend peter if he admits that he is alcoholic or drug addict which is considered to be a disease and a disease is a disability therefore considering the Duty to Accommodate Provisions of the Code employer is bound to accommodate Peter through appropriate means rather than discharge (Module 5). According to the interpretation of the act the organization must establish that Peter’s disability (consuming alcohol while working) interferes with the rights of other co-workers.The clear disciplinary record of Peter over the length of his job makes it difficult to prove that his behavior has been seriously interfering the right s of other employees. The code says that the employers should accommodate the minor interference or inconveniences if the employee take initiative and request for accommodation. If peter explains why he is asking for accommodation the company is obliged to asses the need of accommodation b ased on the needs of Peter’s colleagues.Peter however is required to apply for the accommodation in writing providing enough time for employer to respond and the company is required to response within reasonable time. If Peter is flexible and realistic the company should considers alternatives than discharge Peter as guided by the Ontario Human Rights Code. According to the case study, there are â€Å"persistent rumours from other employees and supervisors that Peter’s breath smells of alcohol on a regular basis† however there is no evidence of that as his disciplinary record is clear.This puts Peter in a good position to request for the accommodation from employer as the law allows him to do so. Therefore based on the evidences discussed above it can be logically argued that if Peter, in accordance with law, admits that he is an alcoholic it is very likely that he will take advantage of the law as he is an experiences union steward. References: http://www. bls. gov/ooh/installation-maintenance-and-repair/industrial-machinery-mechanics-and-maintenance-workers. htm#tab-6 ——————————————– [ 1 ]. http://www. labour. gov. on. ca/english/lr/faqs/lr_faq3. php#what1

Bashing on TV by Michael Abernethy and Wonder Woman by Gloria Steinem Essay

At first glance, the articles Male -Bashing on TV by Michael Abernethy and Wonder Woman by Gloria Steinem would not seem similar at all. However, if you take a much closer look at these two articles you will see that they are similar in many ways as well as different in several others. Comparing and contrasting is import because it illustrates ideas about the article that we may not have noticed before. In the article Male-Bashing on TV, it discusses the use of media and the affect that it has on our society. This article’s purpose is to expose the way the media portrays men. The media describes men as sluggish, dumb, and no good. These views have an extreme way of impacting society today. Abernethy’s article reveals various television shows that have male characters in them suggesting that men are useless without women. According to Gender Issues in Advertising Language, â€Å"television portrayals that help create or reinforce negative stereotypes can lead to problems with self- image, self- concept, and personal aspirations. † In the article Wonder Woman we see how the comic super- hero Wonder Woman was a revelation for women around the world, and a new way to represent women. Although, the question seems to remain whether or not her character was symbolizing was something that negatively affected our society or helped women to identify themselves. This article also stresses the importance media and entertainment has on people and how these images help mold and shape the characters of people today. Wonder Woman was seen as an ideal independent and strong woman who never needed a man. Steinem exposes Wonder Woman as a character that was used to sway women into accepting women’s liberation. Steinem notes that, â€Å"women get a rare message of independence, of depending on themselves, not even on Wonder Woman. You saved yourselves, as she says in one of her inevitable morals at story’s end. I only showed you that you could. † These two articles have many similarities. For example, they both bring to attention the affect that media has on our society. People all around the world are looking to these shows/ characters and idolizing them. They are using exactly what the media â€Å"feeds† them to build their own beliefs and morals. Also, both of these articles expose important issues in the world many people seem to disregard or not notice. Male-Bashing on TV and Wonder Woman are both articles that expose the truth and the media for how it has an importance on how we, as humans, behave, believe, and interact with others. As well as the similarities, these two articles differ in many ways. Male- Bashing on TV discusses how men are portrayed on television and Wonder Woman talks about how women are identified as strong and independent. They almost are complete opposites . The article Male-Bashing on TV notes that men are described as nothing without women. They are looked at by society as pathetic and silly. In Wonder Woman it talks about how women do not need men, and how women are independent without them. It is almost amusing how these two articles use each other’s extreme stereotypes to make their points. In closing, I would say that comparing and contrasting really reveals how the author might have looked at the issue and also shows us, as readers, the differences and similarities between two articles. Despite the differences among these two articles, they are more similar than people may confer.

Eye Witness Testimony Essay

â€Å"Eyewitness testimony is so unreliable that it should never be used in convicting criminals†. Eyewitness testimony is a legal term. It refers to; an account given by person(s) of an event they’ve witnessed. Eyewitness testimony is admissible in a court of law to assist in the conviction of individuals. In 1976, the Devlin report examined over 2000 identity parades in the U. K. Of the 2000 parades, 45% resulted in a suspect being identified and out of these, 82% were eventually convicted of a crime. In over 300 cases, the eyewitness testimony was the sole â€Å"evidence† used in conviction. 4% of these 300 cases resulted in criminal convictions. The significance of eyewitness testimony was highlighted in this report and resulted in much more research being undertaken. Cohen describes â€Å"erroneous eyewitness testimony† as being the â€Å"leading cause of wrongful conviction†. The multi store /Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model was first recognised in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin. The model attempts to identify the process that a stimulus must go through to become a retrievable memory. After being criticised for its supposed simplicity, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed the working memory model. Both of these models propose that memory is a complex phenomenon that must go through numerous stages to become an accurately recalled memory. It is this process that offers explanation into the complexity of memory and the many areas that may result in memory confabulation. The Psychology of Rumour study by Allport & postman’s (examined latter) also alludes to memory being more complex than previously thought and strengthens the theory that memory is a process as opposed to a simplistic film. Sir Frederic Bartlett, (1932) introduced the theory of â€Å"Reconstructive memory† & â€Å"schemas† to Psychology. Schemas where defined by Mike Cardwell as; â€Å"packages of information† or â€Å"unconscious mental structures†. These mental structures are acquired through our experiences, or as a result of our expectations and cultural norms. Bartlett proposed that people use schemas constantly to complete tasks and to assist in making sense of our surroundings. The theory of schemas also suggests that there are gaps in a person’s memory that are filled with confabulated information when reconstructed. Sir Bartlett (1973) devised an experiment to investigate the effects of schemas on people’s memories. Twenty participants read a story called; â€Å"The War of the Ghosts†. The story was culturally different western literature, and was difficult for them to comprehend. After some time, the participants were asked to repeatedly recall the story in as much detail as possible. After recalling the same story six times, once even a year later, participants accidentally shortened the story from 330 words to an average of 180. Participants also altered parts of it to better suit their westernized culture. A conclusion of this experiment is that Memory recall is influenced by our schemas of cultural background and pre-existing knowledge. The experiment has been criticised for a lack of objectivity, being lax on variable control and casual conditions. However, the experimenter’s findings were also strengthened by Cromberg et al whom in 1996 interviewed people one year after plane crash. Of the 193 questioned, 55% falsely said that they had seen the plane hit the building and 59% inaccurately reported that a fire had started immediately on impact. Allport and Postman (1947) conducted a study titled: â€Å"Psychology of Rumour† with participants who were all white. They were shown a picture of an argument between a black man and a white man on a train. The white man is holding a razor and threatening the black man aggressively. The participants were divided into groups of seven. One participant from each group was shown the picture and asked to describe it to the second participant, who described it to the third, and so forth. Over half the participants who received the final description reported that the black man, not the white was holding the razor. This was false and shows that memory is susceptible to alteration by our own biases and prejudices within society. This experiment has been at the forefront of the interface between law and psychology. The findings have been repeatedly relayed in courts of law to express the unreliability of eyewitness testimony. However, inaccurate accounts of the procedures and implications of the study have been substantially misunderstood and distorted. Language is very important in eyewitness testimony; the way that memory is retrieved from a witness strongly affects what that person recalls. Loftus proposed that witnesses could accept false information which would dramatically affect the reliability of their testimony. This is called: â€Å"misinformation acceptance† and May happen in a post event situation such as being interviewed. Loftus believed some interviews contained â€Å"leading questions†. A leading question is defined as a question that is phrased in a way as to influence or prompt a specific form of answer. To test weather leading questions could distort eyewitness testimony, Loftus and palmer (1974) conducted the: â€Å"Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction† experiment. Forty five American students were split into 5 subgroups. After being shown various car collisions on slides that were dependant variables for each group, Participants were instructed to answer questions on what they had witnessed. The groups where asked to estimate the speed of the cars before they either: â€Å"hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted†. Each subgroup was asked the same question but with different verbs (the independent variable. ) A week later participants were also asked questions such as; â€Å"Did you see any broken glass? † when none such existed. The findings of this experiment were that the verb used to describe the collision affected the participants speed estimate given. The Biasing questions which they answered systematically affected the participant’s memory of the accident. The participants in the â€Å"smashed† condition reported the highest speeds, followed by â€Å"collided†, â€Å"bumped†, â€Å"hit†, and â€Å"contacted† in descending order. The â€Å"smashed† group also had more participants reporting to have seen glass when there was none. This experiment shows that memory is easily distorted by questioning techniques and information can be accepted post event causing confabulated memory. Strengths of this experiment are that it was conducted within a controlled environment and has serious implications for interviewing witnesses. However there is weakness’s to the experiment such all participants were students and not a wide range of people. Also, the collisions where viewed on video not in real life. Videos may lack the emotional impact caused when witnessing a real-life accident Loftus et al (1978) proposed that emotion can affect memory. Loftus stated that emotional arousal during an event can lead to a reduction in accurate memory recall. Loftus et al conducted an experiment of the effect of emotion on memory by showing two films of an armed robbery to participants. One film was violent, the other was nonviolent. They then tested the participant’s memories for details of what they had witnessed. The findings showed that the high-arousal version of a young boy being shot and falling to the floor, led to impaired memory recall. This was when compared to the low-arousal version. These findings show that emotions can affect memory. This experiment is lab based and findings may be difficult to transfer into real-life environment. However, being conducted in a controlled environment gives it enhanced ecological validity. Peters (1988) supported Yerkes & Dodson that illustrated an optimum level of emotional arousal enhanced memory. Peters found that when receiving inoculations in a clinic (an anxiety generating event) patients found it difficult in accurately identifying the nurse who issued their jab. One can conclude that this was due to the high levels of arousal surrounding the participant during the time of the jab. There is conflicting evidence weather emotions strengthen or weaken the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies. However, both theories support the idea that emotion has an effect on memory. Eastbrook (1959) proposed that arousal narrows the focus of attention. This causes improved memory for central details but impaired memory for peripheral details. Another factor that affects the reliability of eyewitness testimony while witnessing an event is the: â€Å"weapons focus affect†. Weapon focus refers to the concentration of attention on a weapon by the witnesses of a crime. Loftus et al claimed that this diverted their attention and resulted in a reduction of remembering many other details of the crime or criminal. Loftus (1979) conducted an experiment to study whether the presence of a weapon in an emotionally heightened state could affect eyewitness memory. Participants believed they were waiting to participate in a memory study and were waiting outside a laboratory. As they waited, participants in â€Å"condition 1† overheard a staged yet civil conversation coming from a room regarding equipment failure. A man then exited the room with a greasy hand holding a pen. Condition 2 participants were also privy to a staged conversation from an unseen room. This conversation was â€Å"hostile† and was accompanied by the sound of breaking class and broken furniture. A man then exited the room holding a blood covered knife. Participants were asked to identify the men they saw from fifty photographs. Condition one participants accurately identified the man 49% of the time. However, condition two participants were able to accurately identify the man only 33% of the time. From these results, Loftus concluded that presence of a weapon and a hostile confrontation affected witness’s ability to identify the individual. They were unable to focus attention on the man because more attention was concentrated on the weapon. This study is important in demonstrating the impact a weapon has on the reliability of eyewitness’s testimony. However, there have been many criticisms of these experiments. No distinction is made as to whether the hostile experience affected participant’s memories or simply the weapon. There are also huge concerns over the ethics of this experiment, participants could have been psychologically damaged by the experience and were unable to withdraw from it as they were unaware it had already begun. This experiment was conducted under controlled conditions within a controlled environment; this strengthens the information obtained by increasing the ecological validity of the experiment. The findings are less transferable to real life situations. Chrstianson & Hubinette (1993) demonstrated that in real life settings, memory can be accurate with acute stress. Eyewitness testimony is heavily dependent upon face recognition, and so the study of this subject has acute implications in understanding how reliable memories of faces are. Research shows that people have difficulty accurately recognizing individual members of a different race. One explanation for this is that we use specific features to distinguish between members of our own race and those features are not always present between other races. In a study done by Platz and Hosch, (1986) convenience store clerks were asked to identify three customers: one white, one black, and one Mexican American, all of whom stopped in the store earlier that day. The results of the study showed that each of the clerks identified customers belonging to their own race accurately, but when attempting to identify members of the other races, they stated â€Å"they all look alike. † Cross-Race Identification Bias demonstrates how prone people are to making false identifications when asked to identity people from a different racial or ethnic background other than their own. This research offers some support to the existence of cross-race identification bias. However the experiment has many weaknesses; the participants may have seen many people that day and it’s unclear whether they were briefed prior to the experiment. This experiment has enhanced ecological validity because it is set in one environment. There are many independent variables within this research that if altered, may dramatically distort the previous findings. Fisher and Geiselman (1992) developed the cognitive interview† This is a specialised interviewing technique designed to increase the accuracy of information given and minimise false testimony. The interviewer attempts to eradicate all verbal & nonverbal responses that may affect the witness’s testimony. This is to avoid the â€Å"Clever Hans† effect where a witness’s may pick up cues. There are four basic principles of the cognitive interview; firstly to report everything; all details of an event, i ncluding information deemed irrelevant. Mental reinstatement of original context is another; the interviewee mentally recreates the incident fully. The interviewer may also change the timeline of events by reversing the events in order. Finally, the interviewee is instructed to imagine how other witnesses saw the incident. A meta-analysis found in 53 cases, an average increase of 34% in correct event recognition compared to a non-cognitive interview. However this was conducted within a laboratory not a real-life setting. Mine & Bull (2002) decided to test each of the four cognitive principles separately. Participants were interviewed with one cognitive principal as compared to the four. Recall of accurate information was broadly similar to other participants in a control group who were informed to â€Å"try again†. However, when participants were interviewed using a combination of the cognitive principles their components were significantly higher. Extremely young and old people tend to have an increased susceptibility to suggestion (Ceci & Bruck, 1993; Cohen & Faulkner, 1989) as well as those whom score high on measures of dissociation. It is clear that eyewitness testimony is not as reliable as a means of conviction as generally thought due to many various factors. There is however many improvements and safe guards that can be utilized to improve the reliability of eyewitness testimony such as; performing cognitive interviews and using multiple testimonies. Key factors such as: age, race, and the emotional stimulus of an event should be taken into account. Eyewitness testimony is a vital tool in convicting criminals but may not be accurate enough as a sole means of conviction.

Guantanamo Bay Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Guantanamo Bay - Essay Example The US has faced frequent attacks for holding inmates without trial and for their alleged mistreatment." (Guantanamo Bay). The United Nations has also got involved in the issue now and they have demanded for the immediate closure of this camp. The same has been strongly opposed by the US government and they have put forward that the inmates are treated very humanely in these camps and hence denying all the allegations made against the US. The camp was originally established to keep the suspected terrorists of Afghanistan. "Pentagon officials insist the US is entitled them to hold "enemy combatants" - who do not enjoy the rights of prisoners of war or US citizens accused of crimes - without charges or trial for the duration of hostilities. (Guantanamo Bay). The United nations have proofs of torture in these camps and hence they demand an immediate action by the US. The UN claim that the torture in these camps have reaches another level, the inmates are exposed to extreme temperatures and are fed through nasal tubes, the inmates are also exposed to extreme conditions produced by light and sound. ... The US soldiers slam the heads of the prisoners against the cell; many more unimaginable things are done by the US soldiers' day in and day out. "The US says interrogations are yielding useful intelligence, including some from inmates who have been detained for up to two years." (Guantanamo Bay). "The current Cuban government considers the U.S. presence in Guantnamo to be illegal and the Cuban-American Treaty to have been procured by the threat of force in violation of international law" (Guantanamo Bay). There have been enough proofs found which show that the US soldiers have crossed all the limits and hence they must immediately pull out of Cuba, else the world is likely to witness another war. Major Issues A recent article published in The Guardian claims that a former Guantanamo inmate is a present Taliban leader heading many major operations. This is very bad news for the US and for all the other countries fighting terrorism. The inmates are being treated unfairly by the US army and the same motivates the inmates to escape the Bay and avenge the unfair treatment that they got from the US army. This is a huge problem which must be sorted out as soon as possible, many more members will join Taliban in order to teach the US a lesson in other words to give them a taste of their own medicine. The world is very familiar with the way the US soldiers treated Iraqi citizens. It is not very difficult to figure out why the inmates are turning against the US and joining dangerous groups. "The new Talibanmilitarycommander leading attacks against British troops in southernAfghanistanwas released fromGuantnamo Bay15 months ago after persuading a US military tribunal that he wanted to live a peacef ul life with his family, according to US

Review of Academic Journal Articles on Management Essay

Review of Academic Journal Articles on Management - Essay Example Review of the first article Human resource management is thought of as a recent development which is directed at reshaping the relationships of employees. It can be considered as a tool that has replaced the conventional traditions in the field of management like industrial relations and personnel management. Human resource management is an evolving field that tackles complexities in the organizations. Human resource management is characterized as hard or soft because of its association with the business performance and strategy that has caused a thematic divide between the practices grounded in conventional methods such as personnel management and the modern management of human resource. Ivo (2006) wrote an article to explore the best perspectives about the field of human resource management. In the first section of the article, the author has made an attempt to generate a holistic understanding of the field of human resource management on the basis of various perspectives in manage ment. The author has fundamentally identified three systems of management to achieve this, namely closed or scientific management, semi open system or human relations, and the contingency system or the open system. In the second section, the author has tried to interpret human resource management in the form of a framework by thinking of it as a style. This interpretation makes it easy to perceive the hard and soft type of human resource management stylized as the utilitarian instrumentalism and developmental humanism respectively. The second section basically discusses human resource management in terms of a new discipline of management, a restatement of personnel management, a strategic function or a management discipline that is resource based. In the third section, the author has assessed the effect of human resource management upon the strategy, performance and outcome with the help of the Michigan, Harvard, Choice and Guest models. The author highlights the merits of the Choic e model for effective management of human resource. The fourth section considers senior manager in the role of a choice maker. To achieve this, the author has made use of the Japanese model of human resource management. The fifth section constitutes the conclusion in which the author has recapitulated the use of human resource management in the contemporary market as advocated by the literature. For the purpose of understanding the perceptions of human resource management, the researcher has primarily conducted a comprehensive literature review in which, he has studied and compared the findings of past researches. Finally, the author has summarized the research findings. The field of human resource management is very wide and researchers need to explore various aspects of it in order to generate a sound understanding for use by human resource professionals. Although the effects of human resource management on employment and value creation have been sufficiently studied, there is lit tle knowledge about the characteristics and developmental strategies of human resource management. The findings of research conducted by Ivo (2006) are very useful for the IHRM practice in the real world. The author has particularly placed huge emphasis on the comparison between human resource management and the conventional management practices that have been in place for decades like personnel management. Obtaining correct understanding of human resource

Human Trafficking Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Human Trafficking - Research Paper Example This research paper will explore the issue of human trafficking, look at its causes, effects, how it can be prevented and analyze its magnitude in a few sample drawing countries. Despite the fact that human trafficking is one of the main issues facing the world currently, there is no reliable data that can be used to estimate the number of persons trafficked annually. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime, a body that is responsible for monitoring trafficking for the United Nations, explains that estimating the exact size of the human trafficking is a difficult task because the act is committed underground, and it often go misidentified or not identified at all.2 In addition, victims of human trafficking are often afraid to report cases of abduction to the authority because of the regular stern threats they get from the traffickers. However, various controversial research studies estimate that at least 600,000 to 800,000 young children and women are trafficked per year across the world. These are scary figures, especially considering the fact that the figures do not account for the number of persons trafficked within their own countries. Majority of the human trafficking victims are duped into the vice by the false promises made regarding to job opportunities.3 This is very common especially in the developing countries or the so-called third world countries, where the level of poverty is extremely high. Sources indicate that a significant number of women who are trafficked from these countries are lured into this trade using false marriage as the bait. In the developed countries such as USA, most of the human trafficking cases are related to sexual purposes. According to a study that was conducted on this topic in the country, more than 40% of all the human trafficking investigations in the USA are related to sexual trafficking of a child and roughly 80% of such cases involve United States citizens.

Economic relations between South Korea and China Essay

Economic relations between South Korea and China - Essay Example It seemed like China would never catch up with the Western developed countries economically, but after the 1978 reform period, Deng Xiaoping, a hero of China, focused on market-oriented economic development and by the year 2000, output had quadrupled. The relations between Korea and China had ceased during The Cold War, but the reestablishment in 1992 of formal diplomatic relations between the two countries, the same led spurred a surprisingly rapid growth of bilateral economic exchanges. Before the establishment of official diplomatic relations, the bilateral trade volume between the two countries was not significant. However, since official diplomatic relations were established, trade relations between the two countries have changed dramatically. Trade volumes have increased explosively, except for a temporary lag in the year 1998 when the Korean economy faced serious problems in the aftermath of the Asian financial crisis. Since then, the two countries have maintained relations of significant economic interdependence. From this data, it appears that Korea’s trade with China has increased since the year 1992. In the 1992-2003 time frame, exports of Korean goods to China increased at an annual rate of 26.5 percent, while Korea’s imports of Chinese goods increased at an annual rate of 17.5 percent. 1 The share of exports to China out of Korea’s total exports rose from 3.46 percent in 1992 to 18.11 percent by 2003; the share of imports of China rose from 4.56 percent of Korea’s total imports to 12.25 percent by 2003.2 In 2001, China became Korea’s second-largest export destination, overtaking Japan. The reasons for such successful bilateral economic exchanges are economically complementary structures, geographic proximity and cultural familiarity. 3 The recent brisk exports from Korea to China are due, at least partially, to the fact that the Chinese economy, because of China’s entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO), is

Risk and its Importance Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Risk and its Importance - Coursework Example Essentially a company is indulging into risk management if it is actively analyzing and attempting to quantify the possible losses in a business decision or an investment and then is taking appropriate action to mitigate the possibility of those losses occurring. It is fairly important to manage risk in an investment appraisal process as it helps the organization in protecting itself from all kinds of risks; it helps the organization’s customers from large non-market related losses such as a firm failure or fraud. A strong risk management process does not only help the organization, but it also provides security to the overall industry. Importance of risk management can also be gauged by some recent crisis that has happened due to loopholes present in risk management strategies of a few companies. The financial meltdown of 2008 is a key example. b) Measuring risk and incorporating risk in an investment opportunity Risk management is now an essential part in all the businesses as more and more businessmen are facing the repercussions of a poorly managed business decision in terms of risk. With the financial crisis slowly recovering, it is harder for people to now ignore the importance of risk. Predominantly, risk is considered to be a negative term. It is the probability of a result deviating from its forecast, usually towards the negative side. Therefore, it is predominantly considered negative. However, in investment and financial terms, risk is always associated with return. The more risk a person or an entity is willing to take, the more the return is expected. Understanding risk today is perhaps one of the most important things in financial education and financial market. Its importance cannot be stressed more. A deviation from expected outcome can both be negative as well as positive. Therefore, the idea of ‘no pain, no gain’ works in harmony with this situation. If one is willing to undertake a certain amount of losses to ensure that t hey are the winner in the end in terms of returns, they are effectively managing their risk. Measuring risk in absolute terms is done through standard deviation. It is the basic tool for understanding the deviation of an outcome from a central tendency. A lot of other techniques are used; tools are incorporated in order to measure risk of an investment opportunity. There are a number of models through which firms decide upon the nature of risk that an investment opportunity might have. VaR is another tool; value at risk defines how bad things can go and its probability giving a certain level of confidence for a given amount of time. This helps to identify the potential losses that an investing entity might have if they take a certain decision, taking time and confidence of calculations into account. Incorporating risk in an investment opportunity is through taking into account the impact of risk on the outcome of the investment. Critical questions should be answered as the start of the investment appraisal such as the time, the expected return on investment or if the money invested could be used better in another investment opportunity. Beta is another measure through which risk associated with two different investment opportunities is measured. It is specific for a specific kind of project (Jackson, 2008).

Comparison of Dictatorship and Democracy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Comparison of Dictatorship and Democracy - Essay Example There has been a debate which form of government is more beneficial for the people living in the society as well for the betterment and economic development of the country and different people have different views. It is important to analyze and understand both these forms of government before discussing and comparing these two forms. A dictatorship is an autocratic form of government and generally, this type of government is run or ruled by a single individual or a small group of people as an oligarchy (Acemoglu, 2006). Normally this single individual or small group has all the powers. Some believe that dictators have the power without the consent and approval of the people living in society. On the other hand, democracy is defined as the government that is elected by the people or citizen of the country (Olson, 1993). In a democracy, any eligible citizen of the country can participate and get elected to form the government. Democracy is also termed or defined as the government of t he people, by the people, and for the people (Dewey, 2004). Over the years, there has been a debate whether dictatorship is more powerful and better in ruling the government or democracy. However, some scholars and politicians believe that democracy is more important and crucial for the economic growth and prosperity of the country. One of the main advantages of democracy is that the government is elected by the people and citizens of the country (Dahl, 1989). Therefore the government will make their efforts to make sure that the economy prospers and the country moves in the right direction. However, on the other hand in a dictatorship, dictators that are governing and managing the country may or may not think of the betterment of the country as they are not elected as in a democratic country. Generally, freedom of speech is limited or less in a dictatorship form of government than a democratic form.           Ã‚  

Maydavian Online Reservation and Booking System Essay Example for Free

Maydavian Online Reservation and Booking System Essay Maydavian has been founded as a resort in the beautiful island of Palawan. With the exertion of Ms. Marrieta S. Mayor, the capital of this unspoiled island, and a memorable journey of about two hours by bus or shuttle taking you through a zigzag in the mountains and with breathtaking views of mountain ranges and unspoiled forests. An oasis of hospitality awaits you at Maydavian, with spectacular views of the Sulu Sea. Ideally located in a coconut plantation with modern facilities in harmony with the serene and soothing atmosphere. Maydavian Resort establish on 2000. The establishment started with just a small canteen, 6 rooms and small dinning cottages. After a few months, reception hall, VIP rooms and Standards rooms were built. A swimming pool was formally open to the public. Maydavian Resort has a total land area of eighteen hectares located at Brgy. Caguisan Narra, Palawan. The guest who visited Maydavian loved enjoyed a walkway through century mangroves, clear Sky and myriad of stars and delicious food serves for the most discerning of pallets comprising both Filipino and western specialties. Presently, Maydavian offers plenty of facilities and services. There are the Restaurant and Bar, the Maydavian Pavillion. One of the venues for wedding and birthday parties, island Park intended for playful kids and weather favors the park also serve as venue for children party and garden wedding reception for sports minded guest, there is a room venue for billiards and many more that had contributed to the overall success of this more than a decade old establishment. The continuous growth of the world their exist the modern and a high-tech way of living due to the reason of unsatisfied and consciousness of humans by discovering and searching for more effective way of living such as computer- is a device that computes, especially a programmable electronic machine that performs high speed mathematical or logical operations that can assembles, store, correlates and otherwise process information. Dealing with the triumphant advancement, internet is a network of almost transaction system through this transaction system must gather sort of information for online services. Website is related collection of web files that includes an initial called a homepage it is essential in an organization to establish a tourist spot in the province of Palawan adopting reliable reviewing like a website to provide a complex transaction system through on line services. This system is entitled â€Å"Maydavian Resort Online Reservation and Booking System†.

Managerial Research In Decision Making Processes

Managerial Research In Decision Making Processes Managerial research is a broad topic that covers a range of aspects, whether these are strategic, tactical or technical. People often confuse Managerial research with other research forms, but in fact managerial research differs to a great extent from social and other research types. Managerial research is different in such a way because it explores about the core elements that are needed to make prosper the business instead of searching such information that are not productive or result oriented. The managerial research is important because managers at all stages require timely and exact information for decision making. Whatever the decision making stage is, whether it is of tactical, operational or strategic level, the accurate information are required to for better decision making. At managerial level gathering of information is done through a sound and scientific research process. Each year organizations spend enormous amounts of money for research and development in order to mai ntain their competitive edge. Accurate information obtained through research leads to enormous benefits. In short, Managerial research is practical and finds its application in many places to identify the various characteristics and key factors responsible for the success of the firm and the products it develops. This research paper shows detailed and at length description of managerial research to describe that this type of research is different from other research methods. Definition of Research Research is the procedure of carefully studying and evaluating the situational elements surrounding an issue in order to search for solutions to it. A systematic thorough inquiry or inspection to find new information or correlations and to expand/verify current knowledge for some particular purpose. Why We Do Research? Exploration: Discovering problems of concern, growing understanding of the issue Description: Finding out, defining what is, what is the condition? Where are we now? Explanation: Explaining how or why things are as they are (and utilizing this to predict), Answering questions, resolving issues, testing hypotheses, assessment research evaluation of strategies, policies, plans and practices Difference between Managerial Research Other Research Artistic Research One of the attributes of Artistic Research is that it must take subjectivity as opposite to the classical scientific techniques. As such, it is parallel to the social sciences in utilizing quantitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis Historical Method The historical technique comprises the methods and strategies by which historians utilize historical sources and other proof to research and then to write history. There are different history rules generally utilized by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This contains higher criticism and textual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and examiners, the subsequent concepts are generally part of most formal historical study: Managerial Research Managerial research is practical and finds its application in several places to recognize the different characteristics and major factors accountable for the success of the company and the goods it develops. It usually looks into future trend rather that wasting time in some art or thinking in past. Usually, firms would like to know the level of consumer satisfaction of the companyà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s product and here managerial research will be helpful. Managerial research is also helpful for doing a pilot study to introduce a new product and the different applications and guidelines of managerial research in business decision making. The firms take decision even before introducing new products through managerial research. Managerial research supports them to recognize that whether the product will be viable in firmà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s interest or not. For this purpose different techniques have been utilizing to gather relevant data for better decision making through various paradigms e.g. competitive intelligence, SWOT analysis, financial analysis, Ansoff situation analysis, etc. Managerial research can be utilized to gather data about markets, rivals, and consumers that the other two techniques cannot do so. For instance, managerial research can help identify the most favorable business location and the size of marketplaces. It can also be utilized to monitor competitive actions. Consumer research decides customer loyalty, client satisfaction, and client preferences. In this way a managers job is different and difficult. Managers need some expertise to perform the responsibilities and activities related with being a manager. What kind of expertise does a manager require? Research by Robert L. Katz discovered that managers required three basic expertises. These are technical, human and conceptual expertise. Technical skills contain information of and excellence in a certain specialized domain, for example engineering, computers, financial and managerial accounting, or production. These expertises are more significant at lower levels of administration since these supervisors are coping directly with workers doing the companyà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s work. Human skills engage the capability to work well with other individuals both separately and in a group. Because managers cope directly with individuals, this skill is essential! Managers with good human skills are capable to get the best out of their individuals. They recognize how to int eract, stimulate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and confidence. These expertises are equally significant at all levels of administration. Eventually conceptual skills are the skills managers must have to consider and conceptualize about abstract and difficult situations. Utilizing these skills managers must be capable to see the company as an entity, understand the correlation among different subunits, and visualize how the company fits into its wider setting. Need of Managerial Research Producers need managerial research because they need to convince people to expand their business span through purchasing their products. In order to capture target audience they introduce new Managerial research with new trends and technologies, these trends persuade people to buy the product which actually increases the sales of company and reduces cost per unit. On the other side economic scale of company boost up and give a major rise to profit of company. As things happen very rapid in the technology world and if companies want to stay competitive they need to move up with the latest Managerial research. It is chiefly factual for the managerial research. There exist many ways of Managerial research so a company need to keep abreast of the new Managerial research in business if a company wants to be thrived. As compare to the physical markets there exist lessen barriers in internet managerial research. The reason is the reduction of overhead and it shows that there are so many com petitors in the business field. The main phenomenon to be thrived in t he market by following managerial research in order to assure that the business will be conspicuous. By following the latest trend of managerial research the company will put themselves on the cutting edge. A lot of the managerial research is seemed nice and once it is implemented they serve to make the business stand out. It helps business users and producers to expand their business. If firm is following all managerial research standards then it will be able to diversified advertisement so it will be able to compete in market. More attractive and impressive advertisement will not only increase sales but also will help in capturing market. Managerial Research Role in Decision Making At the beginning, it may be stated that business research or for that matter any research does not provide an exact answer to any issue but only help in making a good choice. Research is one of the four elements for making suitable and enduring decisions leading to interests of the business and ultimately its owners. A good place to begin is with some standard descriptions of decision making. Decision making is the research of recognizing and selecting options based on the values and priorities of the decision taker. Making a decision implies that there are substitute options to be measured, and in such a situation we want not only to recognize as several of these substitutes as feasible but to select the one that (1) has the utmost probability of achievement or success and (2) best fits with our objectives, desires, way of life, values, and so on. Decision making is the procedure of sufficiently decreasing insecurity and uncertainty about substitutes to permit a reasonable selection to be made from among them. This description stresses the information-collecting process of decision making. It should be eminent here that doubt is decreased rather than removed. Very few choices are made with exact certainty because total understanding about all the substitutes is seldom potential. Thus, every deci sion engages a certain amount of threat. If there is no doubt, you do not have a choice; you have an algorithma set of steps or a recipe that is pursued to bring about a set result. Managerial research for marketing is use for evaluating process, evaluating actual customer need, and for complete decision making. Decision making is quite difficult process and put the decision taker at a ground where he starts comparing hid decision options. The first problem he face is he wont be able to finalize the actual demand of result fir the decision has been taken. Managerial research helps identifying policy alternatives. Much work on knowledge exchange has concentrated on helping observers present their work into the decision-making procedure. Equally essential is the need for decision-making companies to be able of utilizing research in their decision-making. This ability engages a company having the capability to find the research proof it requires, judge its dependability, quality, significance, and applicability, adapt it into a possible format, and implement it. Problem solving and decision-making are important managerial expertise for business and life. Issue-resolving often engages decision-making and that is particularly essential for administration and management. There are procedures and methods to enhance decision-making and the quality of choices. Decision-making is more ordinary to certain traits, so these individuals should concentrate more on enhancing the quality of their choices. Individuals that are less normal decision-makers are often capable to make quality evaluations, but then require being more strong-minded in acting upon the evaluations made. Issue-resolving and decision-making are intimately connected, and each needs creativity in recognizing and developing choices, for which the brainstorming method is specifically helpful. SWOT analysis helps evaluate the power of a firm, a business proposal or idea; PEST analysis helps to evaluate the possible and appropriateness of a market. Good decision-making needs a mixture of e xpertise: creative progress and identification of choices, lucidity of judgment, determination of decision, and successful implementation. For group issue-resolving and decision-making, or when a harmony is needed, workshops support, within which you can include these tools and procedures as suitable. Here are some helpful techniques for successful decision-making and issue-resolving: First a simple step-by-step procedure for successful decision-making and issue-resolving. Conclusion Managerial research is the process that facilitates an organization to focus its target audience on the greatest opportunities for increasing the sales and achieve a stay over Managerial research competition. Mainly it cater its key concept that to make a sustainable competitive advantage. Managerial research is introduced by focusing on organization sales and cost per unit. It helps company to figure out the consumption of resources and energies that lead towards the increasing in sale and dominate in the competitive world of managerial research.

Marketing Mix: Tactical Components To Promote Sales

Marketing Mix: Tactical Components To Promote Sales Carlsberg is also one of the largest brewers in Europe. Moreover, Carlsberg is headquartered in Valby in Copenhagen, Denmark. Carlsberg beer portfolio includes more than 500 brands and they are varies significantly in term of volume, price, target audience and geographic penetration. The companys main brand is Carlsberg Beer but it also brews Tuborg as well too. In January 2001, Carlsberg breweries decided to merge with the Norwegian brewery group Orkla ASA and later Carlsberg has become the fifth largest brewery group in the world. Currently, Povl Krogsgaar-Larsen is the Chairman of the Executive Board of Carlsberg Foundation while Jess Soderberg is the Deputy Chairman of the Executive Board of Carlsberg Foundation. Meanwhile, Flemming Besenbacher is one of the members of the Executive Board of Carlsberg Foundation from 2005 until today. 1.1 History Background Carlsberg was constituted in 1847 by J.C. Jacobsen on a hill at Valby. In order to expand the brand name of Carlsberg, it decided to start its exportation in the year 1868. In 1870, Carlsberg had started to become a very successful brewery and the founder, J.C. Jacobsen wanted to share his business with his country. In 1875, the Carlsberg Research Centre was established to research on scientific problem related to brewing and pioneered the very latest brewing technology and techniques. There are more than 1000 scientists devoted to the art of quality beer manufacturing currently. J.C. Jacobson established the Carlsberg Foundation in 1876. In the year 1906, the Old Carlsberg and New Carlsberg have merged and changed the name to Carlsberg breweries due to the division of production was not viable in the long term. As for today, Carlsberg is the beer for modern young people who speak one language in the world with no boundaries. As for information, the Carlsberg brand also provides support to various contests in the world, such as golf tournaments in Asia and English Liverpool Football Club. Carlsberg has it owns organization target, mission and vision. The mission of Carlsberg Company is to be a dynamic provider of quality beers and its also bring its exciting brand, innovative culture and committed teams which will brings people together and add more enjoyment in life. Furthermore, their companys vision is probably the leading the beer company among the world in order to become the first choice of the consumers, customers and employees and also by fully understanding their needs and proactively driving market development. 2.0 What is Marketing Mix? Marketing mix is a combination of tactical components to promote the sales of a product or service (MarketingTeacher, 2010). The firm can control the marketing mix in order to achieve specific goals within a dynamic marketing environment. Basically, the major marketing decision can be divided into four categories which are known as product, price, promotion and place (also known as 4Ps). Product Product is a complex combination of tangible and intangible attributes that provide satisfaction and benefits to the society such as the good, service and idea (Prentice Hall, 2008). When marketing a product, entrepreneurs need to consider and decide the factors which are quality, design, features, variety, utility, branding, packaging and labeling of a particular product. Carlsberg decided to carry out line extensions to extend its brand names to new forms, colors, sizes, ingredients or flavor of its existing product categories (Prentice Hall, 2008). Carlsberg has produced various types of beers in the market throughout the globe and they also try to launch different flavors of beers as they know that individual has different taste and preference for the beer products. By doing this, Carlsberg can be able to satisfy the consumers needs and wants. These are the popular types of beers of Carlsberg: Carlsberg Elephant Carlsberg Lager Tabor Gold Special Brew Tabor Green Danish Royal Stout Ginseng Carlsberg is made from pale lager malt, bittering hops, aroma hops and Carlsberg bottom fermenting yeast. However, Carlsberg has launched different types of beer which can match with various types of dishes, such as seafood, vegetarian, cheese and others (CarlsbergGroup, 2010). Carlsbergs beer products are considered as the convenience goods in consumer product due to the beer products is considered as an inexpensive item which consumers buy frequently and do not do much comparison with other substitute beer products. So, Carlsberg company will differentiate their beer products, produce quality beers, create nice style and design, wrap with unique packaging and labels in order to distinguish itself with its competitors in the global market, such as Heineken and Tiger. Besides, the raw materials that used to produce the beers are the malted barley, hops, yeast, gluten and water. The quality level is different with its competitors in the market because the type of the raw materials that Carlsberg used is not the same. For example, the ways they planted the hops which is one of the raw ingredients are different, so it will end up with different kind of taste. There are also some safety policies in Carlsberg, each of every branch that brews Carlsberg under license, they need to send every type of beers of its sample for once a month for the tasting panel to test in order to ensure the quality of the products (CarlsbergGroup, 2010). So, Carlsberg can consistently deliver the quality that customers pay for. However, one of the Carlsbergs competitors, Heineken, the company produced Buckler which is one of their beer products that is non-alcoholic. So, Heineken can target those young adults and all the religions in the world to buy its non-alcoholic products. Carlsberg did not produce any non-alcohol drink and it might lose its sales because Heineken targets all the consumers irregardless their religion in order to boost up their sale and competed with Carlsberg. Therefore, Carlsberg should also produce non-alcohol drink in order to compete with its tough competitors, Heineken. 3.1 Packaging In the packaging aspect, Carlsberg company uses aluminium cans and glass bottle which can be recycled. The purpose of the packaging is to protect the product from damage and assist retailers in attracting attention to the product (Prentice Hall, 2008). The diagram below shows the difference between the packaging designs of the Carlsberg Lager. BEFORE AFTER Changes of the packaging design of Carlsberg Lager. By doing this, Carlsberg can create instant consumer recognition of the company or brand. Moreover, by making the packaging design unique, Carlsberg can competes with its competitors and its products packaging can also catch the attention of the consumers even if its products are on the same retail store shelves with other substitute beers. For example, Carlsberg started to use environmentally responsible packaging materials and packaging the Carlsberg lager into a unique style glass bottle and less used of papers on it. However, some elderly customers might not be able to see the words that are curved on the Carlsberg Lagers bottle and end up buying other substitute beers that the words can be see clearly. So, Carlsberg should also pay attention on the minority consumers and improve its packaging to look more outstanding than the other beer brands in the market. 3.2 Labeling Labels can be ranged from simple tags attached to products to complex graphics that are part of the package (Prentice Hall, 2008). Moreover, Carlsberg labels its products might also help to promote its products and also support its positioning. As for information, majority of the consumers will look at the percentage of the alcohol of the beer products and they prefer to buy those beer products contain with high percentage of alcohol. Carlsberg labels their beer products in detail: Carlsberg Special Brew It contains 12kcal of calories, 1.1g of carbohydrates, and 2.6g of alcohol. Carlsberg Lager It contains 12kcl of calories, 1.1g of carbohydrates, and 1.1g of alcohol. Tabor It contains 12kcl of calories, 1.1g of carbohydrates, and 1.4g of alcohol. Carlsberg Elephant It contains 13.75kcl of calories, 1.3g of carbohydrates, and 2.9 g of alcohol. Danish Royal Stout Ginseng It contains 15kcl of calories, 1.1g of carbohydrates, and 0.1g of alcohol. Tabor Gold It contains 12kc of calories, 1.1g of carbohydrates, and 2.3g alcohol. Besides that, Carlsberg ensures that their labels contain all the required information and also stated on its products that young adults who are below the age of 18 could not consume its beer products. 3.3 Branding Branding is important to the company because branding can add value to a product. Consumers prefer to buy goods by viewing the brand of the particular goods in the market. Since 1904, Carlsberg has a strong and well-known brand name in the beer industry. The slogan of Carlsberg is Probably the best lager in the world. Previously, Carlsbergs original logos include the swastika and an elephant. However, the world famous Carlsberg logo was introduced by Thorvald Bindesbell in the year 1904, for the launch of Carlsberg pilsner (Logo Design, 2010). The crown on the logo stands for the companys association with the Royal Danish Court. Pricing Price is the amount of money charged for a product or service (Prentice Hall, 2008). It is important to set a price for a product to create and capture customer values in the market. In Malaysia, the government has an authority to set the price for Carlsbergs products which is banned from Muslim. Several country like Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Malaysia have implemented piecemeal legislation such as banning the advertising on TV for any alcoholic beverages but the alcohol companies still have the right and freedom to promote their products. In addition to duties and excise tax, the government levies a sales tax of 20 per cent on the Carlsbergs beer product. As Carlsberg consumption is consider as price-sensitive, major changes in taxes may have an impact on demand. In Russia, an extreme 200% increase in excise duties on beer was implemented in January 2010, and in July 2009 the Ukraine implemented a significant increase of 94% in beer excise duty (Bloomberg, 2010). Carlsberg has carry out thorough scenario planning for 2010 and subsequent years based on already known and anticipated increases in beer excise duty levels. The scenarios include evaluation of prices, packaging and product mix, regional and national market positions and microeconomic factors such as changes in supply and demand for various input costs. Price list of Carlsberg Products The tables above show the price list of the product of both company according to the types of beers and the size volume of the beers. We have converted the price of each product from the United State Dollar ($) to Ringgit Malaysia (RM). 4.1 Internal and external considerations Every country has different pricing for Carlsbergs beer products. For example, Malaysia is an Islamic country. So, malays are not allowed to consume alcoholic drinks. The price of Carlsberg in Malaysia supposedly to be charged in a lower price compared to non-Islamic country. There are some areas in Malaysia which have duty-free for Carlsberg such as Pulau Langkawi. 4.2 Pricing Strategies Price-Adjustment Strategies Segmented pricing: Segmented pricing is to adjust the price to allow for differences in customers, products or locations (Prentice hall, 2008). Carlsberg company uses location pricing, so the price of Carlsberg can be adjusted and flexible but it depends on different country and even in restaurants. Carlsberg focus their sales in pub, restaurants or clubbing place. For instance, comparing the price of Carlsberg between pub and mini market, it seems obviously that the price of Carlsberg in pub would be relatively higher than mini market because people who go to pub are found to be able to afford it and the area of the pub is considered as high class. Carlsberg implements Everyday low pricing (EDLP) which involves charging a constant everyday low price with few or no temporary price discounts. It usually will have some discounts during the festival seasons like Chinese New Year and Christmas. Besides that, Carlsberg use pricing at or near which is one of the pricing strategies. There are few substitute beer products in the market, so the price of the Carlsbergs products will be the same or slightly different with the other substitute beer products. Thus, it can prevent the happening of the price war between Carlsberg and other beer brands. As for information, the price of Carlsbergs products are cheaper compared to the price of Heinekens product but it is slightly lower than the price of Heinekens product. However, the price of Carlsberg and Tiger are the same regardless the size of the beer or packaging. This will be tough for Carlsberg to boost up its sales due to the price for Carlsberg and Tiger are the same in the market. Carlsberg can increase its sales by improving the quality of the beers and give out free gift whenever consumers purchase a carton of Carlbergs beer products. By giving out free gift or limited edition stuff, it will attract the consumers to buy Carlsbergs beer products rather than buying other substitute beer brands in the market. 5.0 Promotion: Carlsberg is well-known in 105 countries such as Japan, Australia, Africa, China, India, and Malaysia, etc and sold in more than 150 markets. Besides that, Carlsberg has adopted some aggressive promotions around the world to pursuit people consume and aware it. In order to compete with its competitors, promotion must be done in order to increase the reputation, generate sales and profits. There are few strong beer brand eager to compete with Carlsberg since Carlsberg is an international business which have branches all around the world, such as Asia, Europe, and other countries. Promotion tactics for Carlsberg are advertising, public relations, sale promotion and personal selling. Moreover, Carlsberg is creating brand awareness in the public. Its public relations is Carlsberg Hue Zing Education Fund (CEF) which give out Studies Loan to all Malaysian citizens who are enrolled in local or foreign institutions of higher learning hold certificate in UEC, SPM or STPM, or any higher certificate. In the Year 2009, the Carlsberg Hue Zing Education Fund had allocated about RM450, 000 which had aided 31 students in need of financial assistance. By doing this, Malaysia citizens will have a good impression on Carlsberg and tend to consume its beer products due to other beer brands never adopt this strategy to create awareness for their products. Carlsberg was crowned the Grand Prize winner of the 11 annual Chinese New Year greeting advertisement award organized by China Press and Nan yang Siang Pau. It cleverly illustrates the transformation of the Chinese character from Ox to Life by adding the iconic Carlsberg swoosh. Furthermore, Carlsberg also have produced their own bottle opener which had their brand name on stated on it. The Glass Beer which label with the logo and Carlsberg Pilsner is also one of the promotion for Carlsberg in Malaysia. 5.1 Advertising Case 1 The contest open to all non-Muslim residents of Malaysia ONLY. Join the Carlsberg Monaco Promotion Contest now and you could win yourself an all expenses paid holiday on private yacht in Monaco. Buy the Carlberg beers that carry a scratch-to-win sticker , scratch it to get the code and submit the code complete with a slogan I am inspired à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (in 20 words or less) using SMS or via the website. For more informations, terms and conditions , please visit the contests site. Prizes : Grand Prize: 7D/6N all expenses paid holiday on private yacht in Monaco for 4 person Special Prize: 11 x 3D/2N paid holiday and yacht experience in Langkawi for 2 persons Weekly Prize: 15 x iPOD Shuffle (1GB) Contest End : On 25th May 2007 Posted: April 30, 2007 by ContestStation.net in Buy Win Contests As the case 1 above, we can see that in order to increase their sales, Carlsberg create a campaign, which provide scratch-to-win sticker to some Carlsberg beer and the participants are required to provide a slogan with the requirement, free traveling is available if they win in the competition. Meanwhile, Carlsberg can also get some inspiration of Slogan from customers and knows more about their consumers. This will create a win-win situation which both the consumers and Carlsberg gain benefit too. In this case, Carlsberg shows that they take importance on the political environment on Malaysia. Malaysia is an Islamic country and alcoholic drinks is illegal in the past, after few years, the government allowed alcoholic drinks to be imported into Malaysia but with the condition that Islamic people are not allowed to purchased or consumed alcoholic drinks. So, Carlsberg only opened this competition for non-Muslim which they are allowed to purchase alcoholic drinks. This shows that Carlsberg did a research before they conduct this activity in Malaysia. Assuming if Carlsberg ignore the rule and regulations, the government will take action on them, or even banned them from importing the alcoholic drinks to Malaysia. 5.2 Direct Mail Direct Mail is a method of advertising to increase the awareness of what promotion does the company had. It is now being claimed that is the fastest and the most saving cost in order to advertise. Carlsberg company spends money on buying the database to record the customers information, such as income level, race, age, taste and preference. By doing this, mailing to the right consumers to promote Carlsbergs beer products will be much more effective than mailing to those consumers who are not interested in alcoholic drinks. So, Carlsberg can send promotion via email to the customers to inform them about their new beer products and contest. However, one of the problems being faced by Carlsberg is that their name was being used by illegal organization which used their company address to scam people money. As shown in below, one of the consumers received the email which was send by the scammer and the email stated that she won a lottery which up to 650,000.00 Pounds from Carlsberg Beer Carlsberg Malta Company. When she attempted to called the contact number that was provided in the mail, she was shocked to find out that the people ask her to pay a few thousand pounds for the bank transfer fees before she can get the rewards. Date: Sun, 29 Jun 2008 03:27:09 -0600 (MDT) From: Carlsberg Company Promotion [emailprotected] Reply-To: [emailprotected] Subject: You Won 650.000.00 Pounds Sterlings: File For Clam now Carlsberg UK Ltd, Jacobsen House 140 Bridge Street, Northampton, NN1 1PZ ***PROMOTION NOTIFICATION*** Dear Winner, This is to inform you of the Award of Six Hundred and Fifty Thousand Pounds (650,000.00 Pounds) from Carlsberg Beer Carlsberg Malta Company.This Promotion Award is to raise the profile of Carlsberg Beer Carlsberg Malta Products consumers males / females in rural and urban Areas. The online promotions email lists were generated from the World Wide Web. This promotion takes place annually to challenge and to take market share from the popular Dutch import beer. The tactics included live events, local campaigns and general buzz to establish the brand one neighborhood at a time in major urban / rural Areas.Your Email Ref Number falls within our European booklet representatives office in United Kingdom . In view of this, your Award of Six Hundred and Fifty Thousand Pounds Sterlings (650,000.00 Pounds Sterlings) will be released to you by will commence the process to facilitate the release of your funds as soon as you contact him, find below the contact details Mr. Edward Phil Processing Director. Email: [emailprotected] Tel: +44 70457 24289 He will brief you on steps to be taken for due processing and remittance of your prize money. File in for your Claims by Furnishing your Fiduciary Agent the information below. VERIFICATION AND FUNDS RELEASE FORM 1. FULL NAMES:________________ 2. ADDRESS:_________City_________State________Postcode_______Country_____ 3. SEX:________________ 4. AGE:________________ 5. OCCUPATION:________________ 6. TELEPHONE NUMBER:________________ 7. NATIONALITY:____________________ Mode Of Transfer: (Bank to Bank online Transfer) From the management of Carlsberg Company UK we would like to say a big congratulation to you Sincerely, Mrs. Dianne Thompson Online Coordinator, Carlsberg Beer Malta Breweries In this case, Carlsberg should be aware of scam organization in the world and it should start to take actions to solve the serious scamming problems which will harm the company brand name in the future. Carlsberg can publishes through newspaper or via Email that they would never organize any contest which will need the customers to bank in a certain amount of money in order to win prizes. The promotion mix of Carlsberg is not very efficient because it is lacked of public relation. Therefore, if the consumers give any comments or suggestions, Carlsberg can make any adjustment to fulfill the consumer wants and improve their beer products quality in the future. 6.0 Place: Carlsberg company distributes its products throughtout the world. Carlsberg has divided their market into four groups which are Afica and Middle East, Americas, Asia and Europe. There are about 45,000 people are working for Carlsberg Group. Besides that, Carlsbergs products are available in exactly 314 countries all over the world. Furthermore, Carlsberg also has the same distribution channel with Heineken (its competitor) such as the wholesale distribution and retail distribution to distribute their products to the customers. Carlsberg will deliver their products to a combination of convience store or hypermarkers like Tesco or Jusco. Carlsberg does not have any distrbution center like Heineken or Tiger because Carlsberg focus on the retail distribution to distribute their products. Some of the example of the retail distribution are the pubs, clubs or bars. Carlsberg will establish alliance with some of the retail distribution to increase their sales. The market of Carlsberg in Africa is categorized according to the geographical. They made the segmentation into West Africa, Central Africa, Southern Africa, Eastern Africa and also North Africa. The Carlsberg Group has been active in western Africa for many years. In central Africa, currently there are only four markets present in Central Africa which is Gabon, Congo, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. In Cameroon, Les Brasseries du Cameroun has been producing Tuborg Gold locally since 1979, along with the range of local brands. Cameroon is a very competitive market compared to the rest of the region, with the consumption of 25 liters per person per year. In December 1969, Carlsberg Brewery Malaysia Berhad began brewing with Carlsberg Green Label beer locally in 1972. The Carlsberg brand had become the part of daily life and it is now the undisputed market leader with more than a 50% share of the Malaysian beer market. Carlsberg Malaysia has aimed to be at the forefront of innovation and quality and always led the market with dynamic product launches and massive consumer campaigns. In 2008, Carlsberg Green Label received Malaysias Gold Most Trusted Brand Award for the ninth consecutive year in the Readers Digest consumer survey. In the same year, Carlsberg Malaysia was also announced as the winner of the 2008 Strongest Winning Culture Award amongst all the Carlsberg Group Company across the world. Furthermore, Carlsberg company plans to enter into the Germanys market. There are about 1300 breweries in Germany which is quite a lot of number compare to other small retails. The Germany beer is known as Carlsberg Deutschland. The Germany beer market has been rather sheltered from the rest of the world because of the German Reinheitsgebot regulation, which dated back to the year of 1516. In 2004, Carlsberg acquires a majority shareholding in Holsten-Brauerei. The market position of Carlsberg in Northern Germany is second, while at the whole Germany is the fifth. As for the distribution part, we suggest that Carlsberg should follow the steps of Heineken and Tiger (its competitors) to open several distribution center in many countries, so that the consumers can be able to consume Carlsbergs beer products at anytime and anywhere. Besides that, Carlsberg should also built some distribution center at the rural area, although the place was not well developed. By doing this, more and more people will start to know Carlsbergs brand name throughout the world regardless in the city or rural area. Stem Cells: History, Properties and Research Stem Cells: History, Properties and Research History Stem cells  are  cells  found in all multi cellular  organisms. They are characterized by the ability to renew themselves through  mitotic  cell division and  differentiate  into a diverse range of specialized cell types. Research in the stem cell field grew out of findings by  Ernest A. McCulloch  and James E. Till  at the  University of Toronto  in the 1960s The two broad types of mammalian stem cells are:  embryonic stem cells  that are isolated from the  inner cell mass  of  blastocysts, and  adult stem cells  that are found in adult tissues. In a developing  embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all of the specialized embryonic tissues. In adult  organisms, stem cells and  progenitor cells  act as a repair system for the body, replenishing specialized cells, but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or intestinal tissues. Stem cells can now be grown and transformed into specialized cells with characteristics consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through  cell culture. Highly plastic adult stem cells from a variety of sources, including  umbilical cord blood  and  bone marrow, are routinely used in medical therapies. Embryonic  cell lines  and  autologous  embryonic stem cells generated through  therapeutic cloning  have also been proposed as promising candidates for future therapies Contents (Jump to) 1  Properties 1.1  Self-renewal 1.2  Potency definitions 1.3  Identification 2  Embryonic 3  Adult 4  Amniotic 5  Induced pluripotent 6  Lineage 7  Treatments 8  Research patents 9  Key research events 10  References Properties The classical definition of a stem cell requires that it possess two properties: Self-renewal   the ability to go through numerous  cycles  of  cell division  while maintaining the undifferentiated state. Potency   the capacity to  differentiate  into specialized cell types. In the strictest sense, this requires stem cells to be either  totipotent  or  pluripotent   to be able to give rise to any mature cell type, although  multipotent  or  unipotent  progenitor cells  are sometimes referred to as stem cells. Self-renewal Two mechanisms exist to ensure that the stem cell population is maintained: Obligatory asymmetric replication   a stem cell divides into one  daughter cell  that is identical to the original stem cell, and another daughter cell that is differentiated Stochastic differentiation   when one stem cell develops into two differentiated daughter cells, another stem cell undergoes  mitosis  and produces two stem cells identical to the original. Potency definitions Pluripotent, embryonic stem cells originate as inner mass cells within a blastocyst. The stem cells can become any tissue in the body, excluding a placenta. Only the morulas cells are totipotent, able to become all tissues and a placenta. Human  embryonic  stem cells A: Cell colonies that are not yet differentiated. B:  Nerve  cell Potency  specifies the differentiation potential (the potential to differentiate into different cell types) of the stem cell. Totipotent  (a.k.a  omnipotent) stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell types. Such cells can construct a complete, viable, organism.  These cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg are also totipotent. Pluripotent  stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells,  i.e. cells derived from any of the three  germ layers. Multipotent  stem cells can differentiate into a number of cells, but only those of a closely related family of cells. Oligopotent  stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells. Unipotent  cells can produce only one cell type, their own,  but have the property of self-renewal which distinguishes them from non-stem cells (e.g. muscle stem cells). Identification The practical definition of a stem cell is the functional definition a cell that has the potential to regenerate tissue over a lifetime. For example, the gold standard test for a bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) is the ability to transplant one cell and save an individual without HSCs. In this case, a stem cell must be able to produce new blood cells and immune cells over a long term, demonstrating potency. It should also be possible to isolate stem cells from the transplanted individual, which can themselves be transplanted into another individual without HSCs, demonstrating that the stem cell was able to self-renew. Properties of stem cells can be illustrated  in vitro, using methods such as  clonogenic assays, where single cells are characterized by their ability to differentiate and self-renew.  As well, stem cells can be isolated based on a distinctive set of cell surface markers. However,  in vitro  culture conditions can alter the behavior of cells, making it unclear whether the cells will behave in a similar manner  in vivo. Considerable debate exists whether some proposed adult cell populations are truly stem cells. Embryonic Embryonic stem cell lines  (ES cell lines) are cultures of cells derived from the  epiblast  tissue of the  inner cell mass  (ICM) of a  blastocyst  or earliermorula  stage embryos.  A blastocyst is an early stage  embryo-approximately four to five days old in humans and consisting of 50-150 cells. ES cells are  pluripotent  and give rise during development to all derivatives of the three primary  germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult  body  when given sufficient and necessary stimulation for a specific cell type. They do not contribute to the extra-embryonic membranes or the  placenta. Nearly all research to date has taken place using mouse embryonic stem cells (mES) or human embryonic stem cells (hES). Both have the essential stem cell characteristics, yet they require very different environments in order to maintain an undifferentiated state. Mouse ES cells are grown on a layer of gelatin and require the presence of Leukemia Inhibitory Factor (LIF). Human ES cells are grown on a feeder layer of mouse embryonic  fibroblasts(MEFs) and require the presence of basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF or FGF-2).  Without optimal culture conditions or genetic manipulation, embryonic stem cells will rapidly differentiate. A human embryonic stem cell is also defined by the presence of several transcription factors and cell surface proteins. The transcription factors  Oct-4,Nanog, and  Sox2  form the core regulatory network that ensures the suppression of genes that lead to differentiation and the maintenance of pluripotency.  The cell surface antigens most commonly used to identify hES cells are the glycolipids SSEA3 and SSEA4 and the keratan sulfate antigens Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81. The molecular definition of a stem cell includes many more proteins and continues to be a topic of research. After nearly ten years of research,  there are no approved treatments using embryonic stem cells. The first human trial was approved by the US Food Drug Administration in January 2009.  However, as of August 2010, the first human trial had not yet been initiated. Although, The first human medical trial for embryonic stem cells started in Atlanta on October 13, 2010 for spinal injury victims. ES cells, being pluripotent cells, require specific signals for correct differentiation if injected directly into another body, ES cells will differentiate into many different types of cells, causing a  teratoma. Differentiating ES cells into usable cells while avoiding transplant rejection are just a few of the hurdles that embryonic stem cell researchers still face.  Many nations currently have  moratoria  on either ES cell research or the production of new ES cell lines. Because of their combined abilities of unlimited expansion and pluripotency, embryonic stem cells remain a the oretically potential source for  regenerative medicine  and tissue replacement after injury or disease. Adult Also known as  somatic stem cells and  germline  (giving rise to gametes) stem cells, they can be found in children, as well as adults. Stem cell division and differentiation.  A stem cell; B progenitor cell; C differentiated cell; 1 symmetric stem cell division; 2 asymmetric stem cell division; 3 progenitor division; 4 terminal differentiation Pluripotent adult stem cells are rare and generally small in number but can be found in a number of tissues including umbilical cord blood.  A great deal of adult stem cell research has focused on clarifying their capacity to divide or self-renew indefinitely and their differentiation potential.  In mice, pluripotent stem cells are directly generated from adult fibroblast cultures. Unfortunately, many mice dont live long with stem cell organs. Most adult stem cells are lineage-restricted (multipotent) and are generally referred to by their tissue origin (mesenchymal stem cell, adipose-derived stem cell,endothelial stem cell, etc.). Adult stem cell treatments have been successfully used for many years to treat leukemia and related bone/blood cancers through bone marrow transplants.  Adult stem cells are also used in veterinary medicine to treat tendon and ligament injuries in horses. The use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not as  controversial  as  embryonic stem cells, because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an  embryo. Additionally, because in some instances adult stem cells can be obtained from the intended recipient, (an  autograft) the risk of rejection is essentially non-existent in these situations. Consequently, more US government funding is being provided for adult stem cell research. An extremely rich source for adult mesenchymal stem cells is the developing tooth bud of the mandibular third molar. While considered multipotent they may prove to be pluripotent. The stem cells eventually form enamel (ectodrm), dentin,periodontal ligament, blood vessels, dental pulp, nervous tissues, including a minimum of 29 different unique end organs. Because of extreme ease in collection at 8-10 years of age before calcification and minimal to no morbidity will probably constitute a major source for personal banking, research and multiple therapies. These stem cells have been shown capable of producing hepatocytes. Amniotic Multipotent stem cells are also found in  amniotic fluid. These stem cells are very active, expand extensively without feeders and are not tumorigenic.  Amniotic stem cells  are multipotent and can differentiate in cells of adipogenic, osteogenic, myogenic, endothelial, hepatic and also neuronal lines.  All over the world, universities and research institutes are studying  amniotic fluid  to discover all the qualities of amniotic stem cells, and scientists such as  Anthony Atala  and  Giuseppe Simoni  have discovered important results. From an ethical point of view, stem cells from  amniotic fluid  can solve a lot of problems, because its possible to catch amniotic stem cells without destroying embryos. For example, the Vatican newspaper Osservatore Romano called amniotic stem cell the future of medicine. Its possible to collect amniotic stem cells for donors or for autologuous use: the first US amniotic stem cells bank   opened in Medford, MA, by  Biocell Center  Corporation  Ã‚  and collaborates with various hospitals and universities all over the world Induced pluripotent These are not adult stem cells, but rather reprogrammed cells (e.g. epithelial cells) given pluripotent capabilities. Using genetic reprogramming with protein  transcription factors, pluripotent stem cells equivalent to  embryonic stem cells  have been derived from human adult skin tissue.  Shinya Yamanaka  and his colleagues at  Kyoto University  used the transcription factors Oct3/4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4  in their experiments on cells from human faces.  Junying Yu,  James Thomson, and their colleagues at the  University of Wisconsin-Madison  used a different set of factors, Oct4, Sox2, Nanog and Lin28,  and carried out their experiments using cells from human  foreskin. As a result of the success of these experiments,  Ian Wilmut, who helped create the first cloned animal  Dolly the Sheep, has announced that he will abandon  nuclear transfer  as an avenue of research. Frozen blood samples can be used as a source of induced pluripotent stem cells, opening a new avenue for obtaining the valued cells. Lineage They ensure self-renewal, stem cells undergo two types of cell division (see  Stem cell division and differentiation  diagram). Symmetric division gives rise to two identical daughter cells both endowed with stem cell properties. Asymmetric division, on the other hand, produces only one stem cell and a  progenitor cell  with limited self-renewal potential. Progenitors can go through several rounds of cell division before terminally  differentiating  into a mature cell. It is possible that the molecular distinction between symmetric and asymmetric divisions lies in differential segregation of cell membrane proteins (such as  receptors) between the daughter cells. An alternative theory is that stem cells remain undifferentiated due to environmental cues in their particular niche. Stem cells differentiate when they leave that niche or no longer receive those signals. Studies in  Drosophila  germarium have identified the signals dpp and adherens junctions that prevent germarium stem cells from differentiating. Main article:  Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell The signals that lead to reprogramming of cells to an embryonic-like state are also being investigated. These signal pathways include several  transcription factors  including the  oncogene  c-Myc. Initial studies indicate that transformation of mice cells with a combination of these anti-differentiation signals can reverse differentiation and may allow adult cells to become pluripotent. However, the need to transform these cells with an oncogene may prevent the use of this approach in therapy. Challenging the terminal nature of cellular differentiation and the integrity of lineage commitment, it was recently determined that the somatic expression of combined  transcription factors  can directly induce other defined somatic cell fates; researchers identified three neural-lineage-specific transcription factors that could directly convert mouse  fibroblasts  (skin cells) into fully-functional  neurons. This induced neurons (iN) cell research inspires the researchers to induce other cell types implies that  all  cells are  totipotent: with the proper tools, all cells may form all kinds of tissue. Treatments Medical researchers believe that stem cell therapy has the potential to dramatically change the treatment of human disease. A number of adult stem cell therapies already exist, particularly  bone marrow transplants  that are used to treat  leukemia.  In the future, medical researchers anticipate being able to use technologies derived from stem cell research to treat a wider variety of diseases including  cancer, Parkinsons disease,  spinal cord injuries,  Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,  multiple sclerosis, and  muscle  damage, amongst a number of other impairments and conditions.  However, there still exists a great deal of social and scientific uncertainty surrounding stem cell research, which could possibly be overcome through public debate and future research, and further education of the public. One concern of treatment is the possible risk that transplanted stem cells could form tumors and have the possibility of becoming cancerous if cell division continues uncontrollably. Stem cells, however, are already studied extensively. While some scientists are hesitant to associate the therapeutic potential of stem cells as the first goal of the research, they find the investigation of stem cells as a goal worthy in itself. Contrarily, supporters of embryonic stem cell research argue that such research should be pursued because the resultant treatments could have significant medical potential. It is also noted that excess embryos created for  in vitro fertilization  could be donated with consent and used for the research Diseases and conditions where stem cell treatment is promising or emerging.  Bone marrow transplantation is, as of 2009, the only established use of stem cells. Research patents The  patents  covering a lot of work on human embryonic stem cells are owned by the  Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation  (WARF). WARF does not charge academics to study human stem cells but does charge commercial users. WARF sold  Geron Corp.  exclusive rights to work on human stem cells but later sued Geron Corp. to recover some of the previously sold rights. The two sides agreed that Geron Corp. would keep the rights to only three cell types. In 2001, WARF came under public pressure to widen access to human stem-cell technology. These patents are now in doubt as a request for reviewing the  US Patent and Trademark Office  has been filed by non-profit patent-watchdogs  The Foundation for Taxpayer Consumer Rights, and the  Public Patent Foundation  as well as molecular biologist Jeanne Loring of the Burnham Institute. According to them, two of the patents granted to WARF are invalid because they cover a technique published in 1993 for which a patent had already been granted to an Australian researcher. Another part of the challenge states that these techniques, developed by  James A. Thomson, are rendered obvious by a 1990 paper and two textbooks. The outcome of this legal challenge is particularly relevant to the Geron Corp. as it can only license patents that are upheld. Key research events January 2008   Robert Lanza and colleagues at Advanced Cell Technology and UCSF create the first human embryonic stem cells without destruction of the embryo January 2008   Development of human cloned blastocysts following  somatic cell nuclear transfer  with adult fibroblasts. February 2008   Generation of pluripotent stem cells from adult mouse liver and stomach: these iPS cells seem to be more similar to embryonic stem cells than the previously developed iPS cells and not tumorigenic, moreover genes that are required for iPS cells do not need to be inserted into specific sites, which encourages the development of non-viral reprogramming techniques. March 2008 The first published study of successful cartilage regeneration in the human knee using autologous adult mesenchymal stem cells is published by clinicians from Regenerative Sciences. October 2008   Sabine Conrad and colleagues at Tà ¼bingen, Germany generate  pluripotent stem cells  from spermatogonial cells of adult human testis by culturing the cells in vitro under  leukemia inhibitory factor  (LIF) supplementation. 30 October 2008   Embryonic-like stem cells from a single human hair. 1 March 2009   Andras Nagy, Keisuke Kaji,  et al.  discover a way to produce embryonic-like stem cells from normal adult cells by using a novel wrapping procedure to deliver specific genes to adult cells to reprogram them into stem cells without the risks of using a virus to make the change. The use of  electroporation  is said to allow for the temporary insertion of genes into the cell. 28 May 2009  Kim  et al.  announced that they had devised a way to manipulate skin cells to create patient specific induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS), claiming it to be the ultimate stem cell solution. 11 October 2010  First trial of embryonic stem cells in humans References Becker AJ, McCulloch EA, Till JE (1963). Cytological demonstration of the clonal nature of spleen colonies derived from transplanted mouse marrow cells.   Siminovitch L, McCulloch EA, Till JE (1963). The distribution of colony-forming cells among spleen colonies.  Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology. Tuch BE (2006). Stem cells-a clinical update.  Australian Family Physician. Hans R. Schà ¶ler (2007). The Potential of Stem Cells: An Inventory. In Nikolaus Knoepffler, Dagmar Schipanski, and Stefan Lorenz Sorgner.  Humanbiotechnology as Social Challenge. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Mitalipov S, Wolf D (2009).  HYPERLINK http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrezartid=2752493Totipotency, pluripotency and nuclear reprogrammingHYPERLINK http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrezartid=2752493.  Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol   Ulloa-Montoya F, Verfaillie CM, Hu WS (Jul 2005). Culture systems for pluripotent stem cells.  J Biosci Bioeng.   Friedenstein AJ, Deriglasova UF, Kulagina NN, Panasuk AF, Rudakowa SF, Luria EA, Ruadkow IA (1974). Precursors for fibroblasts in different populations of hematopoietic cells as detected by the  in vitro  colony assay method.